Learning and Memory INTRODUCTION Memory, one of the most universal of behavioral

Learning and Memory
INTRODUCTION
Memory, one of the most universal of behavioral processes, is exhibited in some measure by almost all animals. There is even scientific evidence that memory is to some extent possessed and utilized by individual cells. From an evolutionary standpoint, memory is highly adaptive; it helps in finding food, avoiding predators, and caring for offspring. In order to perform these tasks, the nervous system has developed a diverse anatomical and chemical system for information storage and retrieval.
In this unit, we will explore the nature of memory, its biological basis, and the different types of memory that are believed to exist. We will also review case studies involving different types of amnesia in order to learn what happens when something goes wrong in memory processing. These studies indicate that severe memory impairment often leads to confabulation and dementia, thus confirming the essential role of memory in helping us make sense of our perceptions and experiences.
The process by which the nervous system stores and retrieves information is one of the most fascinating topics in science. This unit begins with the neuroanatomy of memory, examining the parts of the brain that underlie an organism’s ability to remember. It is here that we will encounter patient “H. M.,” the most widely studied neuropsychological subject in history, whose case study has shaped our ideas about memory for the last 40 years (Carlson, 2014). As a treatment for intractable epilepsy, H. M. underwent the removal of large portions of both of his temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and overlying cortex. As a result, he developed profound anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories) and moderate retrograde amnesia (the inability to recall previously learned information). It was this kind of observation that first suggested that the brain supports multiple forms of memory associated with different anatomical substrates, leading to the modern distinction between declarative memory (memory of facts and events) and nondeclarative or procedural memory (memory for such tasks as riding a bicycle).
This unit also presents the case study of another famous neuropsychological patient, “R. B.,” who became amnesic following coronary bypass surgery (Carlson, 2014). Upon R. B.’s death, postmortem analysis revealed brain damage that appeared to be limited to the hippocampus (so-named because of its resemblance to a seahorse). Because the case of R. B. is uncommonly well documented, it provides a fascinating look at memory and its anatomical correlates. It is important to note the types of memory that were impaired in R. B.’s case, the neuropsychological tests that were used to evaluate his cognitive impairments, and the pattern of brain damage that was eventually discovered. It is also important to consider the meaning of these findings and their contribution to our overall knowledge of how memory works.
The hippocampus has been found to contain place cells, which are neurons that fire when an animal is in a particular location (Carlson, 2014). Thus, damage to the hippocampal formation has been found to impair the ability of test animals to keep track of their locations, even in familiar environments. More generally, disruption of hippocampal functioning has been found to impair the ability to recognize and retain spatial relationships. It has also been found that the hippocampal formation plays a strong role in memory consolidation (conversion of short-term memories into long-term memories), and that damage to it can interfere with the ability to distinguish between events that have just occurred and events that occurred some time ago. This suggests that while the hippocampus may originally have provided animals with the ability to orient themselves in space, its role has grown more complex, expanding into the realms of learning and temporal (nonspatial) relationships.
Long-term potentiation (LTP), which occurs largely in the hippocampus, facilitates perception and memory of spatial relationships and is crucially implicated in learning (Carlson, 2014). Some of the most important research on learning and memory comes from studies of the correlation between LTP and relational learning in animals. For example, it has been found that raising rats in a complex environment strengthens the synaptic connections between the entorhinal cortex and the dentate gyrus (parts of the hippocampal formation), that spatial learning tasks increase the levels of an enzyme (CaM-KII) involved in hippocampal LTP in test animals, and that a research protocol blocking NMDA (N-methyl-Daspartate) reception and subsequent LTP in test animals also disrupts their ability to perform the Morris water maze task.
The NMDA receptor, one of four types of receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate (glutamic acid, the brain’s most important excitatory transmitter), functions as part of a glutamate ion channel. The way it does so offers a fascinating glimpse into the molecular mechanics of learning. NMDA is a ligand, a chemical that binds to a larger protein molecule at the binding site of a receptor, and a glutamate agonist, a “gating” substance that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic cell. The NMDA receptor can thus be described as a “ligand-gated ionic channel.” This channel appears to be involved in synaptic plasticity and specifically in target recognition, that is, the identification by a neuron of other neuronal sites with which to synapse in the presence of a given kind of stimulus (Carlson, 2014).
As you learn about the memory system, we should consider the problems that can happen when the memory system is damaged. The damage can happen through disease or injury. The results of the injury can result in several types of cognitive dysfunction. Amnesic disorder is when only the memory is affected. Dementia is defined as a memory deficit plus at least one other cognitive deficit. Those deficits can include problems with perceptual organization, disinhibited behavior, emotional instability, language deficits, or other cognitive functions. Dementia can be caused by a variety of things such as stroke, head injury, or diseases like Parkinson’s Disease. Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type is the most common form of dementia.
Carlson, N. R. (2014). Foundations of behavioral neuroscience (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
OBJECTIVES
To successfully complete this learning unit, you will be expected to:
Analyze the memory system and describe its major components.
Explain the functional deficits associated with dementia.
Describe a culturally competent response to dementia.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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[u07s1] Unit 7 Study 1
Studies
Readings
Read the following:
Carlson, N. R. (2014). Foundations of behavioral neuroscience (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. ISBN: 9780205940240.
Chapter 12, “Learning and Memory,” pages 298–333, in your course text.
Szajer, J., & Murphy, C. (2013). Education level predicts retrospective metamemory accuracy in healthy aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, 35(9), 971–982.
Manckoundia, P., Taroux, M., Kubicki, A., & Mourey, F. (2014). Impact of ambulatory physiotherapy on motor abilities of elderly subjects with Alzheimer’s disease. Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 14(1), 167–175.
Kawai, Y., Miura, R., Tsujimoto, M., Sakurai, T., Yamaoka, A., Takeda, A., & . . . Toba, K. (2013). Neuropsychological differentiation between Alzheimer’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies in a memory clinic. Psychogeriatrics, 13(3), 157–163.
Morris, S. E., Rumsey, J. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2014). Rethinking mental disorders: The role of learning and brain plasticity. Restorative Neurology & Neuroscience, 32(1), 5–23.
Multimedia
Click Language Processing to launch the illustration.
Optional Audiovisual Media
You may wish to view the following video, which presents a fascinating look at the cognitive abilities required to relearn to ride a bicycle when the steering is reversed:
SmarterEveryDay (Producer). The backwards brain bicycle [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFzDaBzBlL0
***ASSIGNMENT***
Learning and Memory
You have been asked by a local senior center to conduct a presentation regarding culturally competent responses to Alzheimer’s patients (or others diagnosed with a neurological disease associated with dementia) by mental health professionals.
For this discussion, prepare an informational flyer to support this presentation. Include the following:
Explain how the disease affects the structure and function of the brain.
Explain how changes in the brain due to the disease affect learning and memory, incorporating recent research findings into your description.
Summarize the potential for ageism to affect the quality of care that an Alzheimer’s patient might receive from a mental health professional.
Suggest ways for mental health professionals, patients, and family members to collaborate effectively in prioritizing the patient’s management of the disease.
Use at least three scholarly references to support your argument. You may opt to make this flyer two pages. Focus on the content rather than the formatting and graphics.
Response Guidelines
Respond to at least one of your peers, identifying areas where additional information might have been useful to include in the flyer. Point out information or ideas that were particularly effective. Also, include one aspect of their flyer that would be particularly helpful for the intended audience.
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